Passive Voice
By Laura Da’
I use a trick to teach
students
how to avoid passive voice.
Circle the
verbs.
Imagine inserting “by zombies”
after each one.
Have the words been
claimed
by the flesh-hungry undead?
If so, passive voice.
I wonder if these
sixth
graders will recollect,
on summer vacation,
as they stretch
their legs
on the way home
from Yellowstone or Yosemite
and
the byway’s historical marker
beckons them to the
site of an
Indian village—
Where trouble was
brewing.
Where, after further hostilities, the army was directed
to enter.
Where the village was razed after the skirmish
occurred.
Where most were women and children.
Riveted bramble of
passive verbs
etched in wood—
stripped hands
breaking up
from the dry ground
to pinch the meat
of their young red
tongues.
From Tributaries (University of Arizona Press, 2015). Copyright © 2015 by Laura Da’. Used with the permission of the author.
A series of treaties led to the Ohio Removal between ca. 1840-1845. But while most history books stop here, the true story is a bit more complicated.
“A tremendous number of Indigenous people remained in Ohio after Removal. Another thing little known by the general public is that people flatly refused to go west,” Dr. Barbara Mann, author and professor at the University of Toledo said. “The government simply declared those people no longer Indian.”
In those cases, the United States government refused to record someone’s existence or even deliberately mis-recorded it.
“The upshot of record-falsification on identities is that about one-half of all living Indigenous Americans in the U.S. do not have identity cards issued by the U.S. government. Because the Ohio reservations were quickly taken away, and the government declared holdouts in Ohio no longer Indian, the official story is that ‘there are no Indians in Ohio’ but that is bunk. This problem leads to very painful fights between ‘enrolled’ and non-treaty peoples,” Dr. Mann said.
While Ohio may not be at the forefront of conversations today around Indigenous peoples and land ownership, a closer look reveals a past and arguably even a present fraught with struggle and hardship but also rich with heritage and culture.
(Jessie Walton. “The Forgotten History of Ohio’s Indigenous Peoples.” www.midstory.org. July 16, 2020.)
Ohio: Indian Territory
We should understand that Ohio was the original “Indian territory” of the U.S as late as the 1790s. Before the American Revolutionary War, the Ohio Territory was populated by tribes of Shawnee in the southwest, Miami in the far west, Wyandot in the northeast, the Senecas in the far northeast, and the Ottawas in the north.
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 reserved what was then Ohio Country and lands beyond west of the Appalachians for Indians, and settlement by European colonists was forbidden. The Royal Proclamation was initially issued by King George III in 1763 to officially claim British territory in North America after Britain won the Seven Years War.
In the Royal Proclamation, ownership over North America is issued to King George. However, the Royal Proclamation explicitly states that “Aboriginal title has existed and continues to exist, and that all land would be considered Aboriginal land until ceded by treaty.” The Proclamation forbade settlers from claiming land from the Aboriginal occupants, unless it has been first bought by the Crown and then sold to the settlers. The Royal Proclamation further sets out that only the Crown can buy land from First Nations.
Some argue that the Royal Proclamation is still valid in Canada, since no law has overruled it. The Royal Proclamation also applied to the United States; however, American independence from Great Britain after the Revolutionary War rendered it no longer applicable. The United States, however, eventually created its own similar law in the Indian Intercourse Acts. The Trade and Intercourse Act of 1790 basically said that no land is to be taken unless by their free consent or by the right of conquest in case of just war.
(”Royal Proclamation, 1763.” First Nations & Indigenous Studies. The University of British Columbia.)
Setting the Record Straight
Despite proclamations and acts, white settlers began to push Native Americans out of Ohio. Dr. Barbara Mann said when she went into academia, the Ohio Indigenous elders gave her the task of “setting the record straight.” Mann is an activist of Seneca descent and author of several works of Native American scholarship.
The Indians of the Ohio country formed a strong confederacy that successfully defended their land from invasion until they were defeated by an American army commanded by General Anthony Wayne in 1794 at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
This victory, and the failure of the commandant of the British fort at modern-day Maumee, convinced Native Americans living along the Maumee River to sue for peace. At the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, they gave up all but the northwestern part of the state and granted a collective of European settlers permission to claim Ohio as farmland.
With U.S. expansion came strategies of creating oftentimes-dishonest “Indian treaties” to claim Ohio for settlers. Treaties like the Fort Stanwix Treaty, the Fort McIntosh Treaty, the Mouth of the Great Miami Treaty and the Fort Harmar Treaty, which applied pressure to the Union of Ohio Natives, came and went.
The treaties caused serious problems for the Indigenous communities of the time: deceitful federal agents negotiated unfair treaties, translators purposefully mis-communicated the contents of the treaties and some Natives were forced to sign under fear for their lives.
Further westward expansion and a succession of wars, including the American Revolution, gave many settlers the opportunity to obtain cheap and available land, seeking after their own prosperity. From that point on, the Indigenous communities in Ohio either left or remained unrecognized.
At the peace negotiations in Ghent in 1814, Great Britain was unable to secure a permanent homeland for the tribes in Ohio setting the stage for further encroachment by settlers. Encroachment eventually led to domination and forced expulsion.
Through a pair of treaties in 1817 and 1818, the Seneca, Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandot nations surrendered most of the rest of Ohio. However, they reserved to themselves a few small parcels. In exchange, the United States granted them modest benefits and recognized their right to remain there as self-governing peoples.
The Other Trail of Tears: The Removal of the Ohio Indians by award-winning historian Mary Stockwell tells the story of this region's historic tribes as they struggled following the death of Tecumseh and the unraveling of his tribal confederacy in 1813.
The process of obtaining full American sovereignty over Indian territories in Ohio was complete around 1818, but continued in Indiana until 1840.
Three tribes left on September 18, 1832. They traveled west on horseback. The Shawnee/Seneca (250) went first, followed by the Ottawa (100), and the Shawnee of Wapakoneta came last (450). They ran out of food in Indiana. The Shawnee from Wapakoneta and the Ottawa finally arrived in Kansas on November 30. Some 116 Shawnee and 28 Ottawa had died. The Shawnee/Seneca arrived in Oklahoma on December 18. At least 30 Shawnee and Seneca had died but no one kept count.
(Mary Stockwell. The Other Trail of Tears: The Removal of the Ohio Indians. 2014.)
The last Indians in Ohio were removed in 1843 via the Treaty with the Wyandots (1842) by which the reservation at Upper Sandusky was ceded to the United States. To compensate the Wyandot, the United States government agreed to provide 148,000 acres of land west of the Mississippi River.
(John J. Vogel. Indians of Ohio and Wyandot County. New York, NY: Vantage Press. 1975.)
Ohio – Lost Land of The Indians?
How are we, the offspring of European settlers of Ohio, to feel about the displacement of Native Americans? I can only speak for myself. I find the treatment and displacement of Native Americans was despicable. Treaties did little to prevent the expulsion of these Ohioans. You may believe the deadly culture clash was inevitable; however, the true story begs to differ. Now, we have a duty as stewards of the land and as caring historians to lift up the true picture of Native habitation and culture in Ohio.
Native Americans across the country have been fighting for their land and culture ever since Juan Ponce de León became the first European to invade the country in Florida in 1513. For those living today, reparations come in many forms, as that which was taken away from them over the years varies as well.
“I don’t think there is a one-size-fits-all policy of reparations for Indian tribes in the U.S.,” Matthew Fletcher, a foundation professor of law at Michigan State University, told “Nightline.” “There are 574 federally recognized tribes. They are all unique and individual.”
Artist Ty Defoe, who lives in Brooklyn, is hoping his art and performances will give a voice to Native Americans and their history.
“We learn it through a specific lens, and that lens is a white, Westernized, [Euro-centralized] lens perpetuating myths of colonizers as heroes and Native people as evil villains and devil worshippers,” Defoe told “Nightline.” “So I think what’s really important to underscore is, how are we learning this information.”
“I think that with land being stolen, language being wiped away, there was a silencing that was occurring,” he added. “And it almost is strategic genocide when you sort of think about history and what has happened. But what I think is important is that our voices are heard.”
(Tenzin Shakya and Anthony Riva. “To Native Americans, reparations can vary from having sovereignty to just being heard.” ABC News September 25, 2020.)
Iroquois elder, whose English name is Loran Thompson, said the United States owes it to its people to tell its full history, honestly.
Kanasaraken was part of the first American Indian, Native and Indigenous delegation to the United Nations that advocated for the passing of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People in 1977. The declaration, adopted in 2007, provided a universal framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity and well-being of indigenous people around the world.
“Somewhere in this world, there’s going to be people that are gonna open their eyes and ears and put pressure on the oppressors of North America, and make them respect the original peoples of this land,” Kanasaraken said. “America owes its people, more so than me, it owes its people the truth as it actually is. Right from the first day [that] we met on the shores of the ocean all the way through to correct history, because all of the history that you’re being told in the public schools, it’s all lopsided.”
(Tenzin Shakya and Anthony Riva. “To Native Americans, reparations can vary from having sovereignty to just being heard.” ABC News September 25, 2020.)
Beginnings of Greater Understanding
Truth demands justice, and we need to begin measures to assure both truth and justice occur for ancestors of Ohio Natives. Take just one Ohio tribe – the Wyandot – for example. Debbi Snook, reporter for The Cleveland Plain Dealer, writes …
“The Wyandot of Ohio lived and worked in Ohio and called it home.
“They were Ohioans like other Ohioans. They raised crops, went to school and many converted to Christianity. They even fought for Ohio in a war. Yet today the bones of their children – and the children of their children – are 1,000 miles away.
“Janith English knows why. English is principal chief of the Wyandot Nation of Kansas. And as she walks up a rare green hill in downtown Kansas City, Kan., she explains why.
“To her, this hill surrounded by concrete is the ultimate refuge. It is the Wyandot cemetery.
“Hundreds of Wyandots – maybe more than 1,000 – are buried there. Many of them came from Upper Sandusky, Ohio, in 1843.
“English can tell you who is here. Over in the walled area is Charles B. Garrett, a veteran of the War of 1812, one of many Wyandots who fought alongside the United States against Britain. Members of the Zane family are in the row at the edge of the trees, each descended from the tribe’s beloved Chief Tarhe and the founders of Zanesville. Nearby is Henry Jacquis, who was chief of the Wyandot when they mustered strength to come here 160 years ago.”
(Debbi Snook. “Ohio’s Trail of Tears.” wyandotte-nation.org. The Plain Dealer. 2003.)
Beyond the Present
What about those Native Americans that remained in Ohio? Remember what Dr. Barbara Mann said about these “forgotten people. Well, many of their descendants are here today.
The marginalization of Native Americans throughout Ohio’s history has left Ohio’s native peoples with considerable obstacles to overcome.
When asked to characterize the challenges the Native American faces, Ty Smith, current Executive and Project Director of the Native American Indian Center of Central Ohio (NAICCO), noted prominent themes:
Invisibility
Misidentification
A Lack of Culturally Sound Spaces
Acknowledgment
Creation of a Culturally Sound Space for Gatherings
Many throughout Ohio are simply not aware of the Native American presence in the state. According to the United States Census, almost 500,000 people in Ohio identify as Native American, Native Alaska, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander. While many likely identify with their Native American heritage differently, all need resources and support.
NAICCO is the only organization in Ohio of its kind; to engage their members, more organizations should be reaching out to them to lend a helping hand in support. Moving forward, more effort is needed to call attention to this demographic’s presence and influences in the state.
There are no federally recognized tribal nations in the state. However, Native Americans and Alaska Natives make up 2 percent of the state’s population and 2.9 percent in the country, according to the 2020 census. Where is the Native American population in Ohio? In a ranking of “The 10 Cities In Ohio With The Largest Native American Population For 2021” here are the results:
Port Clinton 1.4%
Grafton 1.23%
Urbana 1.09%
Hillsboro 1.03%
Marietta 0.96%
Powell 0.92%
St. Marys 0,9%
Huber Heights 0.87%
Campbell 0.81%
Pepper Pike 0.77%
As population trivia, did you know that estimates say about 500 generations of native people have made Cuyahoga Valley their home. And, in the 1950s, a relocation program brought about 5,000 individuals from 33 western tribes to Cleveland. Those who live here now work together to preserve and celebrate their cultures.
As a remnant of popularity, Ohio also has the largest number of K-12 schools in the country that employ Native-themed mascots, totaling 204 schools and 72 school districts, according to the National Congress of American Indians. Out of the 204 schools, 26 schools use the R-word, and 16 schools use the mascot “Redmen.”
(Sarah Liese. “Changing the narrative: Future Ohio state park aims to tell the accurate history of Tecumseh and the Shawnee people.” Native American Journalists Association Newsletter. 2021.)
In an effort to eliminate the use of Native-themed mascots, NCAI along with the Shawnee Tribe, the Eastern Shawnee Tribe, the American Indian Movement of Ohio, the Committee of 500 Years of Dignity and Resistance, the Lake Erie Native American Council, and the Lake Erie Professional Chapter of the American Indian Science and Engineering Society sent a letter on Aug. 11 to school and district administrators with Native American mascots, urging them to choose a new mascot to represent their institution.
Ohio resident and member of the Little Traverse Bay Band of Odawa Indians, Cynthia Connolly speaks of the negative effects caused by Native-themed mascots in Native communities.
“We know that when Americans have no concept of who we are as a people today, they’re least likely to support our social justice issues and they’re least likely to support our socio-economic fights,” she said. “ It generates apathy, and that’s harmful to our communities.”
(Sarah Liese. “Changing the narrative: Future Ohio state park aims to tell the accurate history of Tecumseh and the Shawnee people.” Native American Journalists Association Newsletter. 2021.)
Though the fight to prohibit the use of Native American imagery and team names is an uphill battle for Native organizations, activists and Shawnee tribal leaders, there is one project in the middle of the state that is bringing together leaders from the state of Ohio and the Shawnee nations. Their main goal is to put forth a thoughtfully accurate narrative of the state’s rich history, one portrayal of Native Americans both sides can agree on.
Groups like the Ohio History Connection see the need to learn about Ohio's past from the Native point of view in order to solidify the state’s legitimate history. New and improved focus in schools on “the right direction” is critical. Greater progress has been made as more Ohio residents feel regretful about the history and are seeking to make corrections in order to better understand the past.
But despite the current supportive environment, Ohio’s historical sites have been misleading and harmful said Chief Glenna Wallace, the leader of the Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma. Wallace said that before she first began working with the Ohio History Connection in 2007, historical markers in the state were not correct, nor were they respectful.
“Quite honestly, when we visited some places, the depictions were so horrible and so inaccurate,” Wallace said. “The term that was so often used to describe (Native people) … was ‘savages.’ … And if somebody didn’t intervene and speak up, that’s all we would be known in history as savages.”
(Sarah Liese. “Changing the narrative: Future Ohio state park aims to tell the accurate history of Tecumseh and the Shawnee people.” Native American Journalists Association Newsletter. 2021.)
And, speaking of “building” history in a literal sense …
Sarah Liese (Navajo/ Chippewa/ Cree) – 2021 Native American Journalism Fellow in the E.W. Scripps School of Journalism at Ohio University, reports ...
“Last July, Ohio Gov. Mike DeWine tweeted that he and his wife visited the Tecumseh Motel, a dormant motel located in Oldtown, Ohio, about 20 miles outside of Dayton. He noted that he had discussions about transforming the dated motel into a state park that tells ''the story of Tecumseh & the Shawnee Tribe' …
“Staying true to that promise, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources has partnered with the Shawnee Tribe Cultural and Historical Preservation Committee, Shawnee tribal leaders, and the Ohio History Connection to discuss the fate of the lodging destination. Currently, the property is owned by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources and spans about half an acre; however, the department hopes to secure more land.
“An interpretation center is among one of the critical plans for the park, with construction anticipated to begin in 2022. The center will be the first of its kind in the state and will commemorate one of the largest-known Shawnee settlements in Ohio. The traditional longhouses used by the Shawnee tribe inspired the design concept of the interpretive center, estimated to be about 6,000 and 7,000 square feet once completed.”
(Sarah Liese. “Changing the narrative: Future Ohio state park aims to tell the accurate history of Tecumseh and the Shawnee people.” Native American Journalists Association Newsletter. 2021.)
From “The Rock Cries Out to Us Today”
By Maya Angelou
The rock cries out today,
you may stand on me,
But do not hide your face.
Across the wall of the world,
A river sings a beautiful song,
Come rest here by my side.
Each of you a bordered country,
Delicate and strangely made proud,
Yet thrusting perpetually under siege.
Your armed struggles for profit
Have left collars of waste upon
My shore, currents of debris upon my breast.
Yet, today I call you to my riverside,
If you will study war no more.
Come, clad in peace and
I will sing the songs
The Creator gave to me when I
And the tree and stone were one.
Before cynicism was a bloody
sear across your brow
And when you yet knew
you still knew nothing.
The river sings and sings on.
There is a true yearning to respond to
The singing river and the wise rock.
So say the Asian, the Hispanic, the Jew,
The African and Native American, the Sioux,
The Catholic, the Muslim, the French, the Greek,
The Irish, the Rabbi, the Priest, the Sheikh,
The Gay, the Straight, the Preacher,
The privileged, the homeless, the teacher.
They hear. They all hear
The speaking of the tree.
Today, the first and last of every tree
Speaks to humankind.
Come to me, here beside the river.
Plant yourself beside me,
here beside the river.
Each of you,
descendant of some passed on
Traveler has been paid for.
You, who gave me my first name,
You Pawnee, Apache, and Seneca,
You Cherokee Nation, who rested with me,
Then forced on bloody feet,
Left me to the employment of other
seekers Desperate for gain,
starving for gold.
No comments:
Post a Comment